Pidgin and creole pdf

Language that is neither dominant nor subordinate, mostly come into pidgin after the initial contact has taken place. The present languages in the area where pidgin is spoken and later their vocabularies were borrowed into the pidgin are the adstrate.

I will still give example with Nigerian situation, Hausa language is adstrate because it was later that its vocabularies were borrowed into the pidgin. The term pidgin has a number of opinions on where it was originated. This kind of source cannot be believed because this kind of form Pidian can be a name in the language e. Portuguese were among the first European traders that travelled to third world countries and encouraged the indigenous with their language, but it is difficult to explain phonetically or morphosyntactically how the original word shift to pidgin form.

As the word is used for any action or occupation cf. This opinion is stronger and accepted both phonetically and semantically. On the distribution of a Jewish word outside of Europe and its acceptance as a general term for a trade language. It is broken Portuguese spoken by non-educated people in Angola. This opinion is somehow accepted semantically. Muhlhausler has strengthened the history or the origin of the term pidgin, saying that all of the above origins are genuine, basing his reason as, all are in agreement with the nature of pidgin languages.

DOI: There are no or less controversies on the term Creole than Pidgin. In the seventeenth century, it was originally used to refer to people from European countries born in the colonies.

Semantically, the word Creole changed to refer to customs and languages of people in the colonies. Later it changed to language emerged of pidgin based on European languages like Portuguese, English, Spanish, French or Dutch.

Now the term refer to any language of such situation, regardless of what input language is. Creole is the pidgins that learn by children as their first or native language then is called Creole. The difference between pidgin and Creole is not so much but it is significant to some extent. To some they are different, to others they are the same. Those that having the idea of difference may be based their reason with the Chomskyan paradigm of This model was designed to separate between superficial sentence structure and the deep or logical structure.

In TGG the sentence is represented at different levels, the only level representing the surface grammar is the phonetic level, while the semantic, syntactic and phonological levels are representing the deep structure. This type of difference is always enabling TGG to explain any ambiguous sentence. Now in relation to pidgin and creole, the grammar in pidgin is simplified but when it evolved into creole it became more complex.

The claim of those who seen the two languages pidgin and creole as different basing their argument on the grammar aspect, and relating it to TGG.

Kouwenberg and Singler explained the emphasis of the paradigm. In the interaction of language and mind, the brain has been structured universally with features that distinguish all languages. All these ideas will not give us clear picture of pidgin and creole origin; we need more details that will back these opinions. That is why the following theories were looked into consideration.

Theories Of Pidgins And Creoles In the last hundred years there were several theories proposed by different initiators that explained the origin of pidgin. These theories were classified into five groups, and they overlap with one another. Sometimes there will be a possibility of mixture of origin, pidgin and creole, theories of origin, and developmental stages.

There are several theories from different initiators backing issue of pidgin and creole languages which we are going to look at them one by one. Looking at them should include the discussion of their problems. Todd identified and listed four theories of pidgins and creoles with their developers, and we got additional one which is the recent among the theories from Atlantic group: 1.

The nautical jargon theory John Reinecke came up with the idea of nautical jargon in , suggesting that it could have been the basis of almost all the pidgins and creoles.

This led to the development of core vocabularies of nautical items with simplified grammar. Regardless of where the language varieties are spoken, pidgins display several of these lexical items. The possible influence of nautical jargon has noted in pidgins. Such suggestion would help to justify the similarity and dissimilarity that took place in pidgin and Creole Englishes. One of the shortcomings of this theory is that it does not help to account for the many structural similarities between pidgins which arose from different European languages, and other problem of this theory is that if this is the case with all pidgin or how pidgin came into being, then there should be no actual languages existing now except pidgins throughout the world because these crew of sailors were travelling throughout the world not only English, Portuguese, Spanish, French people, but including Asians such as the Arabs and other languages.

This theory has weak points to stand strong or to convince. It is just an assumption, every setup of people in every situation needs lingua-franca a common language to communicate if the setup comprises of many languages. Yes, it is confusing and contradicting with the definition of pidgin itself, if we go by this theory. The idea of this theory is that, Portuguese pidgin is the one in which all European language based pidgin were derived from, it happened in either 15th or 19th century.

The argument here is that, the Portuguese itself is an artefact of lingua franca common means of communication or language of wider communication for the crusaders and traders in the Mediterranean area. This theory is considered as radical theory among all the theories. This may be the old fashion language of wider communication also called Sabir which was used as auxiliary language. Evidence has shown that language of wider communication differs in lexicon from place to place but its structure remains the same and takes some similarities to modern pidgins and creoles.

Some claimed that the lingua franca survived for so long in the coast of North Africa which was confirmed from Tunisia and Algeria in late 19 th century. The theory claimed that the first set of Portuguese who sailed to the coast of West of Africa in 15 th century would have used their form of lingua franca i. Portuguese were among the first traders that went to India and South East Asia a similar situation can be assumed to have found: the other European languages would have replaced the Portuguese vocabularies of the origin Portuguese pidgin.

Whereas many creoles around the world have vocabularies based on languages other than Portuguese such as English, French, Spanish and Dutch, for that it was theorized that such creoles were derived from this lingua franca by means of relexification i.

The complex characteristics of syntax which used by linguists to find out how the language is related to others have been removed. In learning a second language, relexification accepts that, where people learn lexicon and grammar independently and that will learn the latter and replace the former.

The relexification in this theory guesses a lot of impossibilities which doubtful or difficult for language to spread around the entire tropical zone, to people of different language background, still retain its grammatical structure from the lexifier, and apart from the changes in its phonology and vocabularies. After all how can you learn lexicon and grammar separately and hoping to develop a structured language.

They have seen pidgin speakers and babies frequently move toward the standard articulation, that they both use great amount of content words and limitedly few function words, that in speech morphological change is either very rare or totally absent. The independent parallel development theory Among the first scholars who recognized and spread the resemblance of pidgin and Creole was Robert A. Hall, Jr. He and his supporters of this theory considered that the similarities that exist can be justified for, by acknowledging these languages pidgins and creoles are all derived from Indo—European languages regardless of the varieties.

Many of the speakers have common West African substratum and had to come to terms with similar physical and social condition. The relevance features of this theory should not be left out and it come in two boundaries.

The second one, it is unfair to deny the West African contribution to Atlantic and Pacific pidgins and creoles. This theory still upholds that it is clear that all pidgins and creoles were developed and arose on the independent and similar because were all derived from Indo-European languages in case of Atlantic varieties because they all have common West African substratum.

Historically, this has often happened in areas where multiple groups were trading with each other, or when groups of slaves from various nations were assimilated into a single population and developed a language. Pidgins often borrow words from their source languages and feature a simplified grammar. By the time a pidgin becomes a creole, the language has developed enough of its own characteristics to have a distinct grammar of its own. Malay also has at least 14 recognized creole offshoots thanks to Dutch and Portuguese colonial impact.

The list goes on. Confused yet? Other theories have surfaced since, like the notion that creoles can develop in much more intimate contexts than trade, such as between slaves and plantation owners. In addition, in such situations the more creole-like varieties at the basilectal end of the continuum have lower social status than the more standard-like varieties at the acrolectal end. This brings us to the issues of applied linguistics.

Following current trends in linguistics over the last quarter century, pidgins and creoles have often been abstracted away from the populations who speak them. As Alleyne , Rickford , and others have pointed out, most creolists have been more interested in working on the hot theoretical issues than on the applied p.

Nevertheless, some applied work has been done in the areas of language planning, language and education, and language and the law. Most of the arguments for this expansion are sociopolitical, pointing out that a large proportion of the population is disenfranchised by not knowing the established official language. See, for example, Bebel-Gisler, ; Devonish, For other languages, a standard is developed on the basis of a prestige variety used by the social elite and found in an established literary tradition.

In addition, it is often modeled on an already established standard used in the community such as Latin in the European context. The prestige variety is the form closest to the lexifier, and the established standard is often the lexifier itself—both spoken by only a small elite class see Sebba, Where there is a creole continuum, this could mean selecting the most common intermediate or mesolectal varieties considered to be acceptable forms of the creole.

Although such a method has been advocated for the p. The argument there was that urban speakers would be more familiar with the more conservative rural varieties than rural speakers would be with the more innovative and anglicized urban varieties. Other advantages and disadvantages of each type are described by Winer There are also two types of compromise orthographic systems.

Supporters of a phonemic orthography believe that it is easier for illiterate people to learn to read and that therefore, along with the autonomy factors, it is better suited to fulfill the libertarian goals of access and equity.

Supporters of an etymological orthography believe that there will always be bilingualism and a need to become literate in the lexifier, and that similar orthographies will promote this biliteracy. Sociopolitical ideologies also affect orthographic preferences. For example, p.

The first Haitian Creole orthography was developed in the s, and there have been several others proposed since then, all surrounded by vigorous ideological debates. Also in the Caribbean, orthographies based on the Haitian IPN model were developed for the French-lexified creoles of Guadeloupe and Martinique in the mids and for those of St.

Lucia and Dominica in the early s. Baker, At least four different phonemically based orthographies have been devised for Mauritian Creole, but none of these have achieved official recognition. However, the Mauritius Ministry of Education has recently released a proposal for a standard orthography that appears to have wide acceptance Hookoomsingh, A standard finally emerged from that used in the Tok Pisin translation of the New Testament, published in Wurm, Agreement on an orthography for Bislama did not occur until Crowley, These orthographies are widely used by linguists but rarely by others.

Sranan Surinam also has an official largely phonemic orthography that is not widely accepted Sebba, Regarding other creoles, Papiamentu has two official orthographies, both widely used: an etymological one used on the island of Aruba and a more phonemic one used on Curaao and Bonaire Kouwenberg and Muysken, In , the government of Cape Verde decided to support officially a unified orthography for Capeverdian Gonsalvez, Of course, some have more than one—for example, Haitian Creole with at least half a dozen dictionaries.

Nongovernment organizations that conduct some language planning activities exist in other countries—for example, the Folk Research Centre in St. Lucia Creole, Papiamento, and Sango. However, Mahoune reports that today very few people actually write in the standardized creole.

On the other hand, literature in Haitian Creole has been more varied and more popular. Since then, a substantial body of Haitian Creole literature has developed in novels, short stories, plays, and poetry St Fort, For example, poetry, short stories, and plays have been written in Nigerian Pidgin and Cameroon Pidgin Todd, : 75— Throughout the Caribbean, English-lexified creoles are used in stories, especially in dialogue, and also in songs, poems, and plays Winer, Jamaican Creole is also widely used in cartoons and comics, and since the s it has been used in stories as the voice of first- and third-person narration.

Most common is radio broadcasting, especially for news and announcements. Haitian Creole and Seselwa are also used on television. Use in the print media is somewhat p. News reports in Seselwa and Tok Pisin can also be found on the Internet. This occurs in St.

Lucia, but the creole is not used in Parliament. In some places, especially where there is a creole continuum, their efforts have had little effect on actual language use and attitudes. For an overview, see Simmons-McDonald, As a result, these students face inequities in formal education, as reported for creole speakers in the Caribbean Devonish, ; LePage, ; Winer, and for creole-speaking immigrants in Britain Dalphinis, ; V.

Edwards, and North America Coelho, ; Winer, These inequities include. Negative attitudes and ignorance of teachers Breinberg, ; Pratt-Johnson, Negative attitudes and poor self-image of the students themselves because of denigration of their speech and culture Fischer, Repression of self-expression because of the need to use an unfamiliar form of language Feldman, Stone, and Renderer, An obvious way to deal with these inequities would be to use the language of the students as a language of instruction or a subject of study.

But this is rarely done. One argument concerns the lack of standardization. Especially in situations in which there is a creole continuum, it is difficult to select a norm to be used in education. Snow, , which asserts that using a nonstandard variety of speech in the classroom deprives children of the instruction they need to get the economic benefits that speakers of standard varieties have and condemns them to permanent underclass status.

This argument has been used, for example, to oppose Torres Strait Creole as an educational language Shnukal, : 4. Another was in Australia, where a bilingual program using Kriol ran for more than 20 years at the Barunga Community Education Centre Siegel, Both programs reported successful outcomes despite some initial problems in standardization, and the Barunga program illustrated how materials can be produced locally at very low cost using modern desktop publishing technology Northern Territory Department of Education, Devonish , for example, argues that if creoles were used in more official capacities in creole-speaking countries, speakers would not need to learn the European standard.

In addition to those in the Seychelles and Australia mentioned above, there are nationwide instrumental programs in primary schools using Haitian Creole Bentolila, ; Dejean, ; Valdman, and Papiamentu Appel and Verhoeven, ; Ferrier, n. Lucia, and Vanuatu for references, see Siegel, a. In the early years of school, students are allowed to use their home varieties of language for speaking and sometimes writing, and teachers may utilize their students' own interactional patterns and stories for teaching the standard.

The students' own varieties are put into context by teaching some basic sociolinguistics about different language varieties, standardization, and language attitudes. An objective here is helping students to acquire the standard by focusing on how its structure and use are different from their own varieties.

These references for awareness programs in minority contexts are also important resources for teachers who are not creole speakers and know little about the language of their students.

In Australia, a professional development course for teachers of Kriolspeaking students also exists Catholic Education Office, , and many other resources for teachers have been produced by the national and state governments e. Other important resources for teachers, giving background information about creoles as well as suggestions for classroom activities, have been p. Craig has written a detailed guide to teaching speakers of English-lexifier creoles and other vernaculars.

There seem to be several obvious reasons for these results.