Statistical methods in geography pdf

Davis Insisted that the common feature of geographical data is the fact that it is spatially distributed over time and space. Geographical data have time and space. The values of geographical data have been related to points, areas and lines. For instance when dealing with population data, the points can be used to represent the population density.

Geographical data can take various forms including:. Altitude: Heights of landscapes, always presented in Metres. This data can be presented in form of contours. Rainfall: A rain gauge is used to get the amount of rainfall in mm. This data can be presented in the form of isohyets.

Temperature: Presented in the form of isolines. Population statistics: Presented in the form of dots. The aim of collecting all these data is to solve geographical problems. Geographical data can be;. Individual data provides precise and specific values of every item in the sample population. This data is very informative, thus very difficult to tabulate if the data set is too large. It is suitable if the population is small. The groups are formed arbitrary e.

It is convenient when large numbers are involved in research. Discrete data: Data presented in whole numbers due to their nature e. Human beings, cars, etc. Continuous data: Presented in the value over a given range, temperature, rainfall, height, etc. It is the type of data where you can get fractions. Primary data : Information acquired directly from the field. It enables easy comparison of results. Enables the understanding of the phenomena. It enables the reduction of massiveness of data.

It is good for the manageability of information. Enables the researcher to quantify data by giving numbers to data in a way that data becomes objective and look scientific. Generally the whole information is very difficult is very difficult to study. Statistical methods make it easier to generalise information about population from the sample. It enables to make inferences about the whole population leading to objective decisions. Statistical methods enable researchers to test the significance of the results.

They test the relationships between sample data whether they are significant or a result of chance. Statistical methods allow the making of predictions: Predicting what may happen in future. This requires understanding of past events. The past events on the context of geography are spatial. They may be past while existing. With this knowledge prediction of the future is possible.

Limited time: the amount of time available to a researcher determines the research design, the type of data to be collected, analysis strategy, etc. Reliability and accuracy. This mostly concerned with stability and consistency. If not acquired the data collected can not be reliable. Lack of reliability and accuracy leads to biases and invalidity.

Highly unreliable measures can not be valid. Inability to reach certain populations inaccessibility. Certain populations may not be accessible e. Data disaggregation. Introduction of errors. To solve this problem the developing countries has to exact pressure on natural resources. Spatial diffusion have been fostered by ICT revolution in the way world have been unified in terms of corporate and finance for Example agricultural information for multilateral corporations.

Change from agriculture to industry which leads to change from village to urban. Research involves carrying out a diligent inquiry or critical examination of a given phenomenon such as a critical analysis of existing conclusion or theories visa vies newly discovered facts. The purpose for any research include all or some of the following. To discover new knowledge ie new ideas or new facts.

To identify and describe new phenomenon. To make predictions and make estimation of a phenomenon. Enable control. Offer explanation of a phenomenon based upon described characteristics give a critical reasons why something is happening for example there is a very high drop out rate why.

Why there is low crop production or why road accident or impacts of rainfall variability or what can maintain price of a particular crop in the market. Enable theory development or confirmation, validation of existing theories basic research or develop new ideas that strengthen a theory. Solve a specific problem i. Research is classified according to. Data collection. Case study. Experimental strategy.

It is characterised by one common thing wide and inclusive coverage, Bringing things up to date. Getting snapshot of how things are at a specific time during the survey.

It is an in-depth study of a particular situation or event. Manipulation of circumstances, identifying significant factors, introducing or excluding some factors from the situation, observing effects manipulation and control. Here is not an interview to people for little time but one need to spend a lot of time with people whose culture you want to understand. Example why people prefers this?

Why they live there and how they passive life. There is no one right strategy or correct strategy in doing a research. There is no best strategy but the one which can help to solve a problem is the best. The strategy should be taken prio for the research so choose the best suited according to the purpose.

There are a number of criteria to consider and these include. Does the research you intend to carry out address current issue in a society. Corruption the impact of governance on management and sustainable utilization of natural resources disease environment and poverty. Is it going to make a contribution on what is being known? Is the question about be done? Can your research be done? Criteria for feasibility. How much time are you locating in design, analyse and writing a report.

The research design should make sure that information is accessible. Ie one is doing a research in rain season when roads are not passable. Or assume the information available is for nationals and not for foreigners. Criteria for accuracy. Criteria for objectivity. The extent of responses the response rate. Because of money respondents can give or not give or exaggerate the information. Geographers use specialized research methods to study earth features and human activities.

These methods include;. Geographers travel to regions to answer specific questions about the area or to learn about unfamiliar geographic relationships. Many aspects of geographic research can be shown on maps.

Maps present in a simplified form complex pieces of geographic information. They can easily describe the location, characteristics and patterns of geographic elements. Interviewing : Observation alone can not answer all geographic questions. At times geographers want to study the attitudes people have towards certain places or how their surroundings is affected by their beliefs and activities.

This information can be obtained by interviewing groups of people. Researches often do not interview the entire group, instead they interview a portion of the group scientifically selected to represent the entire population Sampling. Interviews can be formal when guided or informal when guided by a topic. There are face to face and telephone interviews.

Advantages of interviews:. Enable discussion among the researcher and the correspondent. Help to have information on certain groups through telephone interviews.

Disadvantages of interviews. Time consuming and costly. Inaccuracy of information due to forgetfulness, shy, or biasness. The researcher may employ research assistants who are not competent.

Lack standards during evaluation. Focus groups : Acquiring information from a group of 10—20 people. It helps them to understand and voice some of the geographic problems they face. A group should be representative of the whole population.

A focus group enables people with different views to discuss their differences, challenge assumptions and come to a collective understanding of the geographic problems. This method gives give a very brief precise and specific information about the problem. They create new knowledge which was not obtained through other methods. Quantitative methods: With the aid of the computer geographers often test their research by using quantitative mathematical and statistical methods.

These methods help to simplify complex information and to present it in a form that is more easily understood. They also help geographers find the patterns in geographic elements and determine which factors affecting a particular element are the most important.

The use of scientific instruments: This is very crucial to geographic research. Geographers use remote sensing devices to identify and study hard to reach or very large physical features. Such devices are instruments that observe and record information from a distance.

These devices include aerial and satellite cameras, infrared heat sensitive films, and radar. These devices record information about weather systems, patterns of vegetation growth, the existence of pollution, etc.

Some instruments measure environmental characteristics such as weather gauges, which measure and record temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction and air pressure. Geography is a field study subject, concerned with accurate observation, recording and interpretation of the variable nature of the human and physical landscapes.

Types of field work:. Field excursion Field trip : Refers to the trip round the locality or further a field in order to visit places of geographical interest. Students researchers observe, listen to lectures by experts resource persons. Labelling samples - Recording conversations during interviews on audio tapes using a tape recorder. It allows smooth flow of discussion as asking respondents to repeat answers would irritate them.

Place of origin No of tourists per year Europe Africa Asia Total Calculate percentage increase of tourists from Africa between and Measures of Central Tendency - Outstanding general characteristics of the data. Arithmetic Mean -The average Advantages Easy to calculate for a small data Summarises data using a single digit Easy to understand and interpret Disadvantages Difficult to calculate for grouped data Affected by extreme values Median - The middle value in a set of data arranged in order.

II 20, 50, 90, , , , , , , Calculate the range of for the data above. Mode -Most frequently recurring value in a set of data. The mode is Advantages Easy to find as no calculation is involved Easy to understand Disadvantage Rarely used as a measure of central tendency Graphs 2 dimensional drawings which show relationships between 2 types of data representing two items also called variables.

These are dependent variable which is affected by the other e. Steps of Drawing a Graph Draw x and y axis. Choose suitable scale to accommodate the highest and lowest value. Plot the values accurately using faint dots. Join the dots using curved line. Years should also be at the middle. You should have also decided on the width of the bars.

In data without continuity e. Draw vertical lines on either side of the dot then draw horizontal line to join them with the dot. Shade uniformly if they are representing only one type of data and differently if representing one type of data. Include temperature and rainfall scales. Start where the longest bar ends. Key if required e. Accurately plotted and lines, curves or bars properly drawn. Shows trend or movement overtime. May give false impression on the quantity especially when there was no production.

Poor choice of vertical scale may exaggerate fluctuations in values. Difficult to find exact values by interpolation. Easy to interpret. Easy to read. Gives a clear visual impression on the quantity of data. Disadvantages Poor choice of vertical scale may cause exaggeration of bars. Unsuitable technique when values exist in continuity.

Not possible to obtain intermediate values from the graph. It shows relationship between two sets of data. More Filters. Analysis of Population Change in U. Metropolitan Statistical Areas. Understanding population change helps when studying local, regional, and even national trends affecting economies, environments, political decision-making, and other social factors.

Analysis on why … Expand. View 2 excerpts, cites background. Over sixty years ago, geography began its so-called quantitative revolution, where for the first time statistical methods were used to explain the spatial nature of geographic phenomena. Computers … Expand. Highly Influenced. View 1 excerpt, cites methods. Is there congruence in the spatial patterns of regions derived from scalar and vector geographical information?

Moravian Geographical Reports. Abstract Selected traits of the spatial organisation of a geographical environment which stem from two types of human behaviour locational and interactive are examined in this paper. An attempt is … Expand. View 1 excerpt, cites background.